数字乡村发展与牧户非农就业:来自甘青川藏26县2790户牧户调查的证据(原标题:From Grasslands to Markets: Digital Rural Development and Herders' Non-Farm Employment)

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Open Access Article

by
Zhongan Wu

*,
Toba Stephen Olasehinde

and
Yubing Fan

State Key Laboratory of Herbage Improvement and Grassland Agro-Ecosystems, Chinese Grass Industry Development Strategy Research Center, College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730020, China

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Submission received: 3 July 2026 / Revised: 11 August 2026 / Accepted: 12 August 2026 / Published: 19 August 2026

Abstract

Although natural resources and geographical factors limit herders’ employment options, the development of digital rural helps herding households compete on an equal footing by expanding employment opportunities. Using survey data collected from 2790 herder households in 26 counties across Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan and Tibet from 2023 to 2025, this study examines the relationship between county-level digital rural development and non-farm employment. We find that digital rural development is positively associated with the likelihood that household heads engage primarily in non-farm employment. This finding remains stable across a series of robustness and endogeneity checks. Moreover, the positive association is weaker in areas with a larger primary-industry base and among households engaged in forage cultivation, suggesting that local production structures and household labor commitments constrain the conversion of digital opportunities into employment diversification. Further analysis indicates that digital finance and digital consumption are two potential channels through which digital rural development supports non-farm employment. These findings highlight that the employment benefits of digital development depend not only on digital access but also on the flexibility of household labor allocation and the availability of non-farm opportunities in pastoral areas.

1. Introduction

Artificial intelligence, Big Data, and mobile internet are examples of digital technology that are spreading to all parts of the economy and society, changing how production is organized and people work [1]. Given the above, China released the Digital Rural Development Plan in 2018 to promote the construction of a digital rural society and rural revitalization. As 5G networks expand into rural and pastoral areas, the all-weather demonstration project for e-commerce in rural areas continues to advance, and the coverage of digital inclusive finance is gradually expanding. At the same time, digital infrastructure and services are being rolled out in the grassland region at an ever-increasing rate [2]. However, because of their remote areas, fragile ecosystems and unique cultures, these large pastoral areas have been lacking in development resources for a long time. Traditional livestock farming is limited by the productivity of natural grasslands, ecological red lines and fluctuations in market prices, and a single grazing-based livelihood model cannot provide stable income growth for herder households [3]. Therefore, expanding non-farm employment opportunities and promoting the transfer of the pastoral workforce to the secondary and tertiary sectors are urgently needed to consolidate the results of poverty alleviation and prevent a relapse into poverty, as well as to achieve all-round rejuvenation of pastoral areas.

Non-farm employment provides herder households with an alternative to relying entirely on traditional livestock production. This resulting income mix can reduce exposure to livestock losses and strengthen resilience to market, climatic and health shocks [4]. Especially against the backdrop of increasing resource and environmental constraints in pastoral areas and shrinking growth prospects for traditional livestock farming, promoting the rational flow of labor into non-farm sectors is not only a practical necessity for herding households to enhance the resilience of their livelihoods, but also a key direction for industrial restructuring and socioeconomic transformation in pastoral areas. However, the formation of non-farm employment is not simply a matter of individual choice, as herders’ decision-making is influenced by a range of factors, including their ability to access information, job search costs, financial constraints, and the extent of market access [5,6]. The reason why the development of digital rural may have an impact on herders’ non-farm employment is that it can, to some extent, alleviate these constraints.

Existing research has provided a wealth of discussion on the relationship between the digital economy, information and communication technologies, and rural labor migration, as well as the growth of farm household income [7,8,9,10]. A large body of the literature indicates that digital development can improve the information environment, expand market access, alleviate financial exclusion, and, to some extent, facilitate the shift in rural labor toward the non-farm sector [11,12,13]. Some studies have also indicated that the development of internet usage, digital finance, and e-commerce has a positive impact on farmers’ non-farm employment, entrepreneurial activities, and income growth [14,15,16,17]. More broadly, infrastructure development and technological progress can promote economic diversification and strengthen livelihood resilience in peripheral and resource-dependent regions [18]. In terms of research subjects, most of the existing studies have focused on farmers and have paid relatively little attention to herders, another group in pastoral areas. Herders’ employment decisions are influenced by the general labor market, but they are also restricted by other factors, such as grassland management systems, livestock production cycles, household livestock assets and grazing practices; therefore, their non-farm employment behavior is relatively context-specific and constrained [19,20]. Most studies have focused on the general inclusive benefits of digital technology for research, but there is a lack of specific research on how digital rural initiatives operate in the particular spatial conditions of pastoral areas and whether their effects differ among different groups and regions.

This paper takes as its focus the non-farm employment of herders and studies the effect of digital rural development on the transformation of herders’ employment, as well as the mechanisms through which this change occurs. Based on this, this paper seeks to answer the following questions: can digital rural development promote non-farm employment among herders?; through what mechanisms does it primarily achieve this?; and does this impact vary depending on individual characteristics, spatial conditions, and the level of development in each county? This study makes three contributions. First, it conceptualizes digital rural development in pastoral areas as a mechanism for translating digital access into non-farm employment opportunities, emphasizing the role of household labor constraints in livestock-based livelihoods. In doing so, it extends the literature on digital rural development and labor transition by showing that improved digital access does not automatically lead to labor reallocation, because pastoral production commitments may constrain herders’ ability to respond to new employment opportunities. Second, it integrates survey data from 2790 herding households across Gansu, Qinghai, Sichuan, and Tibet, with a county-level Digital Rural Development Index, providing evidence from underrepresented pastoral production systems. Third, it examines how structural and household-level conditions shape the relationship between digital rural development and non-farm employment, highlighting the importance of contextual heterogeneity in pastoral regions. By linking digital development with livelihood diversification, the study also contributes to the rural sustainability literature by showing that the employment benefits of digitalization depend on household labor flexibility and local economic conditions.

2. Theoretical Framework

2.1. Direct Effects of Digital Rural Development on Herders’ Non-Farm Employment

Compared to typical rural areas, pastoral regions face long-standing constraints such as geographical dispersion, poor transportation, limited access to information and insufficient market access. As a result, employment options for herding households are often confined to traditional livestock farming. Access to non-farm employment depends largely on personal network or occasional face-to-face contact [21]. In light of the above, the construction of an information infrastructure, the extension of platform coverage and the broad application of digital tools in the development of digital rural have created new employment opportunities for herders outside of traditional sectors.

According to the theory of information asymmetry, if market participants cannot obtain the required information in time and to their full satisfaction, they will bear a higher search cost, be less efficient in matching, and thus lose opportunities in their decision-making [22,23]. The development of digital rural is changing how herders get jobs and market information. New technologies are now available to help herders stay informed about new employment prospects outside farming, wage levels, working locations and required skills [24]. In this way, information barriers between herders and the outside labor market have been reduced. Thus, employment information is no longer scarce and fragmented, but rather open and accessible. As a result, herders’ awareness of non-farm employment and their opportunities for employment have significantly increased [25].

As is well-known, non-farm employment not only involves the movement of labor across sectors, but also entails costs associated with information search, transportation, payment settlements and job matching. Transaction cost theory suggests that improvements in market efficiency depend largely on reductions in transaction costs [26,27]. The development of digital rural has reduced the time costs, communication costs, and institutional friction faced by herders when seeking non-farm employment through information dissemination, digital payments and platform integration. Looking further, improvements in the information environment and reductions in transaction costs do not stop at the level of access to employment opportunities. Rather, they continue to influence labor allocation within herding households. In this context, non-farm employment reflects the reallocation of household labor from livestock production to non-farm sector [28,29]. Consequently, household labor may gradually shift away from traditional livestock production toward a wider range of market-based non-farm activities. In light of the above, this paper proposes the following hypothesis:

H1.

Digital rural development is positively associated with household non-farm employment.

2.2. Boundary Conditions of the Employment Effects of Digital Rural Development

Digital rural development can improve information access, reduce job-search costs, and strengthen links to external markets. Nevertheless, these improvements do not automatically generate non-farm employment. Whether herders convert digital opportunities into employment also depends on local industrial structure and household production systems. We therefore examine the moderating roles of primary-industry development and forage cultivation.

Structural transformation involves the reallocation of labor from primary production toward secondary and tertiary activities [30]. Primary-industry value added at the county level measures the absolute scale of agricultural and livestock output, rather than the sector’s share of the local economy or its relative return. A higher value may nevertheless indicate a larger agricultural and livestock production base. In such counties, digital tools may be used more extensively for production management, input procurement and product marketing within the primary sector [31]. Digitalization may lower search, matching, and market-access costs while also improving production within the primary sector. Where digital services are used mainly for production management and product marketing, these benefits may be absorbed within agricultural and pastoral activities rather than translated into labor reallocation [32]. The positive association between digital rural development and herders’ participation in non-farm employment may therefore be weaker in counties with a larger primary industry base. We propose:

H2a.

Higher primary industry value added in a county weakens the positive association between digital rural development and household non-farm employment.

Forage cultivation is closely integrated with livestock production and requires labor for planting, management, harvesting, transport and storage [33]. These tasks increase household labor demands, particularly during busy seasons. With limited household labor, forage cultivation may reduce the time available for non-farm employment [34]. It also binds cropland, forage, livestock and family labor into a more integrated production system. Households may therefore have less flexibility to act on digital employment information and market opportunities.

H2b.

Forage cultivation weakens the positive association between digital rural development and household non-farm employment.

2.3. Transmission Mechanisms of Digital Rural Development

In most cases, funding is a key factor limiting herders’ ability to engage in any activities. Continuing livestock production, starting a business, and seeking employment elsewhere may all require financial resources, while reliable payment services can facilitate related transactions [35,36]. However, due to factors such as remote locations, a lack of financial service outlets and exclusion from the traditional financial system, herders have long faced challenges in accessing financial services [37]. The development of digital rural has driven the shift in financial services toward online, convenient and grassroots-level delivery, providing herders with more accessible channels for payments, credit and financial services. The expansion of financial services to grassroots levels represents not only an increase in the scale of financial operations but also an extension of service coverage and an improvement in the efficiency of resource allocation. Digital rural development can facilitate the expansion of digital finance. Greater access to digital financial services may ease the credit and liquidity constraints faced by herding households. This, in turn, can lower the financial barriers to participation in non-farm employment and entrepreneurial activities [38]. At the same time, development of digital finance has reduced the transaction costs for labor transfer and provided a relatively easy way for herders to access external labor markets [39]. Therefore, the development of digital rural areas should not only increase the supply of financial products but also improve the financial situation for herders’ non-market activities at a deeper level and enhance their ability to engage in non-farm employment. Based on the above analysis, this study puts forward the following hypothesis:

H3.

Digital rural development promotes herders’ non-farm employment by expanding digital finance.

With the spread of online shopping, digital payments, and platform services, herding households have become more closely connected to digital markets. These developments have changed how households purchase goods, make payments, and access consumer services [40].

The shift in consumption patterns is not merely a change in lifestyle. It also influences household employment choices through adjustments in income needs and labor allocation. Traditional herding households often rely on self-produced goods and local supplies. Digital rural development has expanded their access to external markets. Their consumption may therefore become more dependent on purchased goods and services. While households now have a wider range of choices regarding goods and services, they also have a greater need for a stable cash flow to support these choices [41]. The increase in digital consumption suggests that more money will be needed by households. As a result, there has been a change in demand for labor, and many people have begun to leave traditional pastoralism for non-agricultural work in search of a more stable in